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Extreme Organism

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ZyenYa 2008. 3. 29. 23:25
In 1903, the first explorer to trudge across the McMurdo Dry Valleys of the Antarctic wrote, “We have seen no living thing, not even a moss or lichen." He greatly overstated his observations, however. To the expert eye of a biologist, with a little help maybe from a microscope, this ostensibly dead zone is far from lifeless. In the dry streambeds of the parched and frozen land live twenty species of light-converting bacteria, a comparable variety of mostly single-celled algae, and an abundance of microscopic invertebrate creatures that rely on them for nourishment. All of these in turn depend on the melt-water from ice fields, coursing through the rough streambeds during the brief summer, for their annual growth. In the even more brutal conditions on the barren ground away from the creeks and rivers, groups of microbes and fungi subsist, together with other small organisms such as mites that prey on them. At the top of this food chain are four species of worms, each specialized to consume different species than their three cousins. These last creatures―all but invisible to the naked eye―are the largest of the organisms that inhabit the barren region. They are the Valleys’ equivalent of elephants and tigers.

Extremophiles are species such as these adapted to surviving at the far edge of biological capability. Many populate the environmental ends of the Earth in places that seem uninhabitable to gigantic, fragile animals such as humans. They constitute, for instance, the “gardens" of the Antarctic sea ice. The thick ice sheets, which blanket millions of square kilometers of ocean water around the continent, seem forbiddingly hostile to life. But they are filled with channels of slushy saltwater in which single-celled algae flourish year-round. As the ice melts and erodes during the polar summer, the algae sink into the water below, where they are consumed by miniature shrimp-like krill. These in turn are the prey of fish whose blood is kept liquid in the frigid water, like gasoline in a car engine in winter, by biochemical anti-freezes.


During more than three billion years of evolution, bacteria in particular have pushed the boundaries of physical adaptation. one species of these tiny living creatures, an acid lover, thrives in the sulfur springs of Yellowstone National Park. At the opposite end of the scale, other alkaline-loving bacteria occupy soda lakes around the world, where few other living things can survive. The barophiles, “pressure lovers," colonize the floor of the deepest reaches of the ocean. Samples taken there revealed hundreds of species of bacteria and fungi. Transferred to the laboratory, some of the bacteria were able to grow at the same pressure found in their natural habitat, which is a thousand times greater than that near the ocean surface.


The outer reach of physiological flexibility of any kind may have been reached by bacteria called Deinococcus radiodurans that can live through radiation so intense that the glass of a container holding them is cooked to a discolored and brittle state. A human exposed to 1,000 rads of radiation energy dies within one or two weeks. At 1,000 times this amount―1 million rads―the growth of this bacteria is slowed, but all the bacteria in a colony still survive. At 1.75 million rads, 37 percent make it through, and even at 3 million rads, a very small number still endure. The secret of this superbug is its extraordinary ability to repair broken DNA. By comparison, one conventional bacteria that is a dominant inhabitant of the human stomach and intestines can repair two or three breaks in its genetic code at one time. But the superbug can manage five hundred breaks. The special molecular repair techniques it uses remain unknown.


Deinococcus radiodurans and its close relatives are not just extremophiles but world travelers who settle in a wide range of places. They have been found, for example, in the excrement of llamas in the Andes, in rocks of the Antarctic, in the tissue of Atlantic fish, and even in cans of ground pork and beef. They can thrive where few other organisms venture. They are Earth’s ultimate migrants, looking for life in all the worst places.


Given their durability and resilience, superbugs are even candidates for space travel. Microbiologists have begun to ask whether the toughest among them might drift away from Earth, launched by stratospheric winds into space, eventually to settle alive on Mars. Conversely, native microbes from Mars―or beyond our Solar System―might have colonized Earth by seeding the third planet from our Sun with its first life. Such is the theory of the origin of life called “panspermia," once ridiculed, but now an undeniable possibility.

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